2
   2021
 5 

(      )
: 3   :100
:          ,           
          
-
1.            
2.                      
'  '    
-
3.           ?   
4.               
-
5.                
6.           
2
-
7.         
8.             
2
   2021
 5 

(      )
: 3   :100
:          ,           
          
-
1.             
:        
     ,       ,     
   , , ,            
     
 ,       ,  ,   
                  
          -          , 
          
󷉃󷉄1.      ?
    
               , "?", "
  ?"  "  ?"   ,    
         
2
          -      , "
 ?"  "  ?"     ,         
 
          -          , 
    ,        
󼨐󼨑󼨒2.       
               :
)   -   ?
   :
  ?
     ?
     ?
   ,        " "    
                  
 
,     , ,           
)    -   ?
         :
   ?
    ?
         ?
      , "   ,   " (  , 
)                  

 ,         -  ,    
      
)  -   ?
   ,   ,        
          
2
          - " " 
  
              
   
         : -, , , 
, 
)    -        ?
  ,     
   -         

          ,    
 
             
         , ,     
   
)  -   
     ,         
,  ( )  
󷆫󷆪3.      
󷃆󼽢A.   
      ,         
           ,     
   :
     ?
     ?
       ,          
󷃆󼽢B.   
2
         -        ,  
, ,    
     -       
    ,        
-             - 
          
    , -     
󷃆󼽢C.    
   :
   ?
      ?
  ,        ?
              -     
             ,     
             
,            
󷃆󼽢D.   
      ,           
 
               
  
               
,     , ,      
 
󷃆󼽢.  ,    
     :
  ?
2
       ?
    ?
         ,      
          
   , , ,        
󹸯󹸭󹸮4.     :  
  ,           (, ,
 , )    ,       
  
            - 
   ,     -  ;    

󹴷󹴺󹴸󹴹󹴻󹴼󹴽󹴾󹴿󹵀󹵁󹵂5.       
     :
 
  

     
   -    

 ,     

    - "   ,   "

     

  

     

   
 
,    
2
 
  
 
    
󷗭󷗨󷗩󷗪󷗫󷗬6.      ?
       ,          
 :
       
    
       
       
     ,     
             ,   ,  
   
󽄻󽄼󽄽:        
                 
         ,      ,   
   
             ,  
    ,   , , ,      
,               
  ,  
2.                      
'  '    
:     :   
1. :   
   
2
                    ,
      : ",  , ,     
                  "
 ,  ?
             ,    
   
2.    ?
  (1685-1753)            
        " "  - ""
      
                 " "
           :
"      "
(Esse est percipi)
      ,      ?   ,   
            
3.   :       
   ,             
           :
        
          
           
          ?
    -          ,  
        ?
      -       ,  
?
,     : ,            
    ( )   
2
4.       
         :
(A)      ,   
             -     ,   ,
 ,    :
    
     
     
                 
              ?
()     
     :     ,    
      :
1.  (     )
2.  (    )
     -            
(C)     
          , , ,   
        ,          
 ?
     :
     ,           
 ,      
5.   :
         
    ,     
   
          
2
    
       
     ?
  : ,           
   :                 
 ,      ?
          
   ,            
    
6.       
           
                 
       
           :
                
    " "  
        ,      ,  
 
7.         
             ,      ?
   :   
     
               
     ,    
 ,        :         
   
2
8.          
    ,          
     
()  :      ?
           ,      
     ?
     ,         !
  ( )   ,        
 
()     
          "   "  
       :
        ?
         ?
()    
        ,       

          
 ,          -  
                  
  ,     ,    
()     
                  
    
   :
      
          
    ,         
       
2
9.      
   ,      
       
                  
  
             , 
     
10. : - 

           :
                
     ,       
      ,  ,      
    
     -            
   -               
-
3.           ?   
:󼨐󼨑󼨒:    
      17              
  ,             ?   ?  
       ?    ,    
       "   "  
               
              : 
2
󼨻󼨼    ?
  ,              
:
1.  ( ) -    ,  
2.  -    ,  
             ,     
            ,     
    
󹴷󹴺󹴸󹴹󹴻󹴼󹴽󹴾󹴿󹵀󹵁󹵂:       ?
        
 ,                
              
                     
    
                    
            
󼨻󼨼      --  
              
1.   - "  , ..."
          :
         ? -     
    ?     
       ? 
     ,    : "    "      
  ,          
        :
  ,     ,  
2
                    
  
    :     ,         
2.     
,     : "  ?"
  : "                
         ,   ,   ,   
   "
  ,     :
   -  :
: ,    
: ,    
     
3.      
  "   "            
   ,     
  :
            
          -  ,   
   -      ,   -   

4.   
              :
      
           
2
,             - ,   
     
                   
   
5. - 
     - ,      ?   :
         (  ),     (
 )
       (  ),      (
 )
         ,      (  
    ) ,    ,       ,
         
󷗛󷗜    
              , 
     ,        ( )   
,           :   
        
󼨻󼨼      
     ,          
:
          ?
        -       ?
              
,         
 ,      ,          
  
2
󷕘󷕙󷕚:          
               
                  
   ,    , , ,        
  ,    
   "   ,   "           
    ,        
          ?” -      
        ,              
   
4.               
:           
(       )
           ,   , 
  ,             -  
          : "     ?  
,  -,           ?"
     (1646-1716)        
      
,       ,       
       ?
  ,             , 
        (        ) 
,         - , -    
 " "   
   ?
          ,   ,     
 ,     ,           ,  
2
                     ,
   
          
             
 
1.        (,  )
           ,   -   
                ,
            
                 
-           
            ,  -  ,
-        ,  -     
      
2.       - -   
         
       -        
       ?
         ,     "- " 
             ,    
                ,   ,  
       
,       ,         -    
        
3.          
                    
     (  ),        (  )
2
      :
  ,         (       )
  ,          
  ,        -   
                 
 ,   ,         
4.     
            ,     
       -    
    ,             
       
5.        
                   
        ,           
       
               -   
        
6.    
               
      ,  ,       
              ,  
             
:       

            -  
     ,          , 
      ,     -     
  
2
     :
  ,   
       
          -    
           
        ;     ,    
   
-
5.                
:      -       
              , "   
  ?"                 
     ,          
        - 
       : "      
   ,      "
    ? ,           
   -   ,       
1.      ,   
 ,         , "!    "  
  , "               ?"
   , "        -     
         -         "
     :
      
,              
              -  
    
2
2.          
    , "         ?    ?" 
    , "         "
                 ,  ,
,                   
 ()       ,         
    
,     :
         
     ,            
          180°    -        

3.       
        , "       
,    "     -       
 
                  
             
  ,      :
             
             
   ,        
4.            
 ,       , "    , 2 + 2  4   
   !"      , "        
-  ,    "
                 ,
              
              
2
   :
       
5.       
     , "             
    "    , "!     "
              , "
  ,   " (  ,  )        ,  ,
              ,       

     :
                   
  
      ,            
:       
      ?
  :
      ,
            ,
     ,
             
 ,  , ,           
          ,     ,  
         ,     
  
            ,    
    ,       
2
6.           
: :    ?
      
             -   
                  -
  ,                  
   
      ,   ,    
         :
󷵻󷵼󷵽󷵾"           ,  ,    
  "
                 
                 
        
             
1.           
    :
        
        2 + 2 = 4   ,      
  :
    .
      
       
                
          
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨 :
          ,      
  ,   
2.     
2
     :
             
 :
       ,    
,        
    ,           
   ,      
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨 :
          ,         
   
3.       
      , ..     :
""  ,   
 ""          ,  "   
 "  "    "       ""   
, ""          
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨       :
 ""  -               
      
4.            
     :
         
,    :
 
 
            
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨        , "       "
           ,        
  
2
5.         ,      
-                  
 :
                   
 
                  ,  
   ,  ,         
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨 :               
   ( , )          , 
           
6.            
               
        ,        :
            
,          ,    "" 
     
󹰤󹰥󹰦󹰧󹰨     -     ,      
 
     ( )
     ,      :
 -   -         
    ?
    ,          
?
           ?
   ,          -    
      
2
:          
,                 
        
     -      :
            
 '              '  .
-      
-
7.         
:󹵅󹵆󹵇󹵈:   ?
       ,      
               
      ,       ,   
      ,         
               :
  ?
   ?
      ?
           ?
󷆫󷆪  :     
?
          ,      19 
20   
    (1813-1855)-      ,  
         ,    
     
  (1844-1900))          , "
  "      ,        
              

2
-   (1905–1980)-       
     "     ",      
   ,                
  (1913–1960)-      ,  ""
(          )     
     
󼨐󼨑󼨒      
           :
󷃆󷃊   
          ,      
             ( "")   
 
󷃆󽅕 :
           ""    
        ,          
   ,            
󷃆󷃋   
    ( )           , 
           ,     ,     
   
󷃆󽅕          - 
      ,            
      
󷃆󷃌 ,    
             ,        , 
 ,      
󷃆󽅕      -            
      ,         
2
                  
          
󷃆󷃍
         ,     
     ,          
󷃆󽅕   ,           ,  
      -         
󷃏󷃎  
   ""             
               
󷃆󽅕:        , "   ?"   
                 - 
    ,       
󻧀󻧁󻧂󻧃󻧄󻧅󻧆󻧇󻧈󻩈󻩉󻧲󻧳󻧴󻧵󻧶󻧷󻧸󻧹󻩊󻩋󻩌󻧺󻧻󻧼    
      -          
 
         ,    :   
      
       ,   :     
  
          ,   :   
     
󹴷󹴺󹴸󹴹󹴻󹴼󹴽󹴾󹴿󹵀󹵁󹵂:  
    
        ,     ,  
    : ",      ,     
        "
2
         -   ,   , 
 
8.             
:         


,
 

 
      20         ,  
      ,          
,                
 ,             
   :        ?          ?
             (
     )       ,    
               
                

1.   -       
    1920           
                  
           ,     
     ,   ,        
          (  
   -  )      
     ,            
                  
 
2.    -   
              ,
"        "   :   
   ?            ?  , 
    
2
      ,        :
        , 
          
,     :
 100°C    (    )
    ” →  (   )
   ” →  (      )
                 ,
                   
 
3. -  -      
  ,    ,     :
    ?
     ?
  ?
           ,
                 

              " 
       "      , 
              
   
4.      
               
           
  ,     , "  ,"    ?   ""
   ?   ""   ?  ,      ,
      
2
,         ,        
          
5.       
               
   (   )  ,     
        
   :
     
    
            
    20             
 
6.   
            ,   
 ,        
      :         
               ? 
   ,   !
      :
         ( , ,  )
    
    (   )     
      
         
 , ...           
1960          
2
7.    
          ,       

         :
      
      
     
        
              ,   
      
:    
                  
         ,         ,  

     ,            
                
    ,        
         ,       
 :    ?       ?     ?
"                 
     ,     "